In the summer of 2012, an experiment in the northeastern Pacific triggered one of the most controversial episodes in the history of geoengineering. According to CBS News , the Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation, advised by Russ George, an American entrepreneur, released nearly 100 tonnes of iron sulphate into the Pacific Ocean about 200 nautical miles west of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia.
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This experiment aimed to stimulate the growth of phytoplankton, a microscopic marine plant that forms the base of the ocean food web, in the hopes of boosting salmon populations while also exploring if the bloom could absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. Notably, within the following weeks, satellites observed a vast phytoplankton bloom stretching over thousands of square kilometres, thus prompting widespread criticism from researchers and ocean regulators who described this project as one of the largest unauthorised ocean geoengineering experiments ever undertaken.
A giant bloom that satellites observed from space
According to NASA’s MODIS satellite observations and a 2014 Remote Sensing of Environment study by Peng Xiu, Andrew Thomas and Fei Chai, the iron fertilisation produced an unusually intense phytoplankton bloom within a naturally occurring Haida eddy in the Gulf of Alaska. Furthermore, the satellite measurements showed higher chlorophyll concentrations than those normally observed in the region during late summer. The authors compared MODIS/Aqua bio-optical data with AVISO altimeter dynamic-height measurements to assess the bloom’s timing, magnitude and extent against natural iron inputs such as volcanic ash and mesoscale eddy transport.
They found the fertilisation generated the most intensive phytoplankton bloom in the local area over the past 10 years, roughly twice Kasatochi’s 2008 effect and about five times the bloom typically seen in the region. Therefore, scientists drew the conclusion that the artificial fertilisation generated the strongest late-season bloom recorded in a Haida eddy over a decade of satellite observations, making the bloom easily visible from space. However, scientists also noticed that only a small amount of iron appeared to be incorporated into phytoplankton.
Old Massett Haida Nation had funded this project largely and had hoped that increased plankton production would strengthen the marine food web and would eventually improve salmon returns. According to CBS News, Russ George argued that this experiment represented ocean pasture restoration instead of climate engineering and that it complied with existing regulations. However, Canadian federal officials disputed the claims that the project had received official approval. Many researchers criticised the project for its lack of transparency and independent scientific oversight.
Why scientists criticised the experiment despite the noticeable bloom
The scientific controversy surrounding the project is centred not on whether iron can stimulate phytoplankton growth, but on whether large-scale ocean fertilisation is a safe or effective climate solution. According to Victor Smetacek of the Alfred Wegener Institute, who previously led a carefully controlled iron-fertilisation experiment near Antarctica, research like this should be conducted transparently by independent scientific teams instead of private organisations. Meanwhile, other experts argued that announcing a major geoengineering experiment after it had taken place undermined public trust and underscored the need for stronger international governance.
Notably, according to CBS News, the project appeared to conflict with international moratoria adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity and the London Convention. These protocols discourage large-scale ocean fertilisation activities outside legitimate scientific research. While these arguments largely rely on international cooperation instead of criminal penalties, the Haida Gwaii project became a defining example in subsequent debates over regulation of marine carbon-dioxide removal technologies.
