From the middle of the 16th century, there have come down to us the names of chess players who have been widely regarded as the strongest of their time. The earliest of these was the Spanish priest Ruy López de Segura, after whom one of the most popular openings of modern times is named. Others who followed include the Calabrese Gioachino Greco, François-André Danican Philidor, Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, Alexander McDonnell, Howard Staunton, Adolf Anderssen, Mikhail Chigorin and Paul Morphy, each of whom are lionized for their contributions to the development of theory and strategy as well as their dominance over their board during their respective eras.
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The players
China’s Ding Liren is defending the world chess championship against fast-rising Indian teenager Gukesh Dommaraju. The best-of-14-games match is scheduled to take place from 23 November to 15 December at Resorts World Sentosa in Singapore for an overall prize fund of $2.5m (£1.98m).
Ding became China's first men’s world chess champion by defeating Ian Nepomniachtchi last year in Kazakhstan, winning the title vacated by longtime world No 1 Magnus Carlsen of Norway. But the 32-year-old from Zhejiang province has played only 44 classical games in the 19 months since winning the world title while battling personal difficulties including depression and will go off as an underdog in his first world title defense.
Gukesh, commonly known as Gukesh D, stunned the chess establishment by winning the eight-man Candidates tournament in Toronto aged 17 to become the youngest ever challenger for the world championship, finishing top of a stacked field that included Nepomniachtchi, Hikaru Nakamura and Fabiano Caruana. The 18-year-old can shatter the record for youngest ever world champion held by Garry Kasparov, who was 22 when he dethroned Karpov in their 1985 rematch in Moscow.
The format
The match will consist of 14 classical games with each player awarded one point for a win and a half-point for a draw. Whoever reaches seven and a half points first will be declared the champion.
The time control for each game in the classical portion is 120 minutes per side for the first 40 moves, then 30 minutes for the rest of the game, with a 30-second increment per move starting with move 41.
If the score is equal after 14 games, tiebreak games with faster time controls will be played:
• A match consisting of four rapid games with 15 minutes per side and a 10-second increment starting with move 1 would be played. If a player scores 2½ points or more, he would win the championship.
• If the score is still equal, a mini-match of two rapid games would be played, with 10 minutes per side and a five-second increment starting with move 1. If a player scored 1½ points or more, he would win the championship.
• If the score is equal after the rapid portion, a mini-match of two blitz games would be played, with a time control of three minutes per side and a two-second increment starting with move 1. If a player scored 1½ points or more, he would win the championship. A drawing of lots would take place before each mini-match to decide which player plays with the white pieces.
• If the blitz mini-match are tied, a single blitz game with a time control of three minutes per side and a two-second increment starting with move 1 would be played, and the winner would win the championship. A drawing of lots would decide which player plays with the white pieces. If this game was drawn, another blitz game with reversed colors would be played with the same time control, and the winner would win the championship. This process is repeated until either player wins a game.
Players are not allowed to agree to a draw before black's 40th move. A draw claim before then is only permitted if a threefold repetition or stalemate has occurred.
The schedule
Sat 23 Nov Opening ceremony and technical meeting
Sun 24 Nov Rest day
Mon 25 Nov Game 1
Tue 26 Nov Game 2
Wed 27 Nov Game 3
Thu 28 Nov Rest day
Fri 29 Nov Game 4
Sat 30 Nov Game 5
Sun 1 Dec Game 6
Mon 2 Dec Rest day
Tue 3 Dec Game 7
Wed 4 Dec Game 8
Thu 5 Dec Game 9
Fri 6 Dec Rest day
Sat 7 Dec Game 10
Sun 8 Dec Game 11
Mon 9 Dec Game 12
Tue 10 Dec Rest Day
Wed 11 Dec Game 13
Thu 12 Dec Game 14
Fri 13 Dec Tiebreaks (if necessary)
Sat 14 Dec Closing ceremony
All games start at 5pm local time, 2.30pm in India, 9am in London, 4am in New York.
But not until Wilhelm Steinitz and Johannes Zukertort sat down in a small room at 80 Fifth Avenue in New York City on the afternoon of 11 January 1886 did a formal competition to determine the best player on the planet come to pass. Their first-to-10-wins encounter was held in three US cities over the next 78 days for a prize fund of $4,000. Since then, the world chess championship has provided the stage for countless unforgettable contests showcasing the precision, imagination and brilliance of the royal game at the highest level. Here are 22 of the most memorable.
New Orleans 1886
Wilhelm Steinitz v Johannes Zukertort (Game 19)
The inaugural world title match reached its climax at the New Orleans Chess, Checkers and Whist Club at the corner of Baronne and Canal Street, the site of a present-day Walgreen’s. Steinitz, playing with the black pieces, relied on his innovative positional style against the physically and mentally fatigued Zukertort, skillfully maneuvering into a sharp endgame where his superior calculation and strategic understanding prevailed. The game embodied the triumph of modern, scientific chess over the romantic, aggressive style of the 19th century, cementing the Austrian’s legacy as a pioneer of positional play and the first undisputed chess champion.
New York 1894
Emanuel Lasker v Wilhelm Steinitz (Game 7)
In one of the most famous games of the era, Lasker punished Steinitz’s overaggression, capitalizing on the champion’s uncharacteristic inaccuracies to secure a decisive win with sharp tactical play and superior endgame technique. Played before a capacity crowd at the Union Square Hotel, the game exemplified the contrast between Steinitz’s classical, more dogmatic foundations and his German foe’s adaptable, pragmatic style, which came to define his record 27-year reign as world champion. As Kasparov put it: “In a difficult position, he succeeded in setting his opponent the sort of complex problems, of a sort that chess would not see again until the latter half of the 20th century.”
New York 1907
Emanuel Lasker v Frank Marshall (Game 1)
The opening game of a six-city affair set the tone for a match that proved a fiasco for the 29-year-old Marshall, the top American and one of the finest attacking players of his era. The emboldened challenger launched a sharp offensive early in the game, but Lasker calmly dismantled the threats and transitioned into a superior position. The decisive win at the Manhattan Chess Club was a showcase of the 38-year-old champion’s ability to neutralize aggression and exploit overextension, which became a theme of a contest that saw Marshall fail to win any of the 15 games.
Havana 1921
José Raúl Capablanca v Emanuel Lasker (Game 10)
The 32-year-old Capablanca’s precise, almost effortless accumulation of minute positional advantages in the middlegame demonstrated a profound understanding of strategy, while the conclusion helped solidify his reputation as one of history’s finest endgame players. The 68-move win proved the turning point of a tightly wound match, which went downhill in a hurry for the longtime champion, giving rise to a stylistic shift from Lasker’s resourceful, combative approach to Capablanca’s clean, logical play that ushered in a new era of chess. The Cuban’s winning margin of four victories and no defeats was the most lopsided in a world championship match for the next 100 years.
Buenos Aires 1927
Alexander Alekhine v José Raúl Capablanca (Game 11)
Having never beaten Capabalanca in a classical game before their first-to-six-wins match at the Club Argentino de Ajedrez, Alekhine adopted the Queen’s Gambit Declined and applied relentless positional pressure, forcing the champion into a series of difficult decisions. The Russian-born challenger, who became a naturalized French citizen during the course of the nine-week contest, then relied on superior calcuation and technique in the endgame to outplay Capablanca in his strongest phase. The victory punctured the Cuban giant’s aura of invincibility and marked a pivotal moment in Alekhine’s ultimately successful bid to dethrone the reigning champion. A rematch never came to pass due to a combination of Alekhine’s reluctance, financial disagreements, the players’ mutual disdain and the lack of a formal championship structure (which wouldn’t exist until 1948).
Bayreuth 1934
Alexander Alekhine v Efim Bogoljubov (Game 16)
“It is incredible how long Alekhine remained on top despite his pernicious addiction to alcohol,” wrote the Dutch-American grandmaster Hans Kmoch, who was taken aback by the large trunk containing “nothing but liquor bottles – a traveling bar” he saw delivered to the champion’s hotel room during his 1934 tie with Bogoljubow. No matter. The 41-year-old Alekhine was still capable of brilliant attacking performances like their 16th game, which he steered into a sharp and complex middlegame to create a decisive kingside attack. The result left Alekhine with one hand on the trophy in a rematch of their world title showdown from six years before, reaffirming his status as one of the most dominant champions of his era.
Zandvoort 1935
Max Euwe v Alexander Alekhine (Game 26)
Euwe’s tactical brilliance in one of the finest games ever played (immortalized as the Pearl of Zandvoort) was the turning point in his historic upset of Alekhine in a back-and-forth match staged in 13 cities across the Netherlands over an 80-day span. The Amsterdam native showed composed precision under immense pressure, outplaying Alekhine in a tense, strategic battle that exemplified the challenger’s resilience and positional understanding. Euwe, a 34-year-old mathematics teacher who’d captured the world amateur title seven years prior, went on to become the fifth wereldkampioen and first non-professional to win the crown.
Moscow 1951
Mikhail Botvinnik v David Bronstein (Game 6)
The first all-Soviet world title match, but far from the last, offered up a delicious contrast of styles. Botvinnik, renowned for his strategic precision and ironclad defense, clashed with Bronstein’s creative and unpredictable play. The 27-year-old challenger’s daring sacrifices in their sixth game placed suffocating pressure on Botvinnik, who was able to gradually equalize toward a dead-drawn position. That’s when Bronstein (after 45 minutes of thought!) made one of the most spectacular errors in world championship history (57 Kc2??), a move the press immediately declared the Blunder of the Century. The complexity and tension of the contest embodied the high level of psychological intensity that defined the first drawn world title match, which saw the 39-year-old Botvinnik retain the title at Moscow’s Tchaikovsky Concert Hall.
Moscow 1954
Mikhail Botvinnik v Vasily Smyslov (Game 9)
The opening chapter in Botvinnik and Smyslov’s world championship trilogy is regarded as one of the most exciting matches ever played with the ninth game standing out as the highlight. The 33-year-old Smyslov probed at subtle weaknesses in Botvinnik’s pawn structure, restricted counterplay in the middlegame and ended a short but heated battle with a rare queen sacrifice (19 Qxe4!!) against one of history’s most formidable defenders. It was the first of three straight wins that saw Smyslov swing a 3-0 match deficit into a 5-3 advantage, only for Botvinnik to fight back and retain the title on another 12-12 draw.
Moscow 1957
Vasily Smyslov v Mikhail Botvinnik (Game 6)
Smyslov’s deep positional understanding and ability to exploit small advantages was on full display as he incrementally gained control over key squares, gradually building a kingside attack while limiting Botvinnik’s counterplay. The Muscovite challenger’s precise calculations and harmonious piece coordination culminated in a decisive breakthrough, forcing Botvinnik into a passive and losing position. The game marked the crossroads in a match that saw Smyslov prevail 12½-9½ and end Botvinnik’s nine-year championship reign, though the Soviet legend would wrest back the title the following year in their rubber match.
Moscow 1960
Mikhail Tal v Mikhail Botvinnik (Game 6)
It’s been said that while Botvinnik was always searching for the rules, Tal was always looking out for the exceptions. Never was that more apt than in the sixth game of their first title clash, when the swashbuckling Magician from Riga unleashed a sacrificial assault, prioritizing dynamic piece play over material, leaving Botvinnik to grapple with the startling complications. The audience was said to have been so excited by the 23-year-old’s speculative knight sacrifice (21...Nf4) that organizers moved the game to a back room due to the noise. The most famous game of Tal’s career was the artistic pinnacle of a match he never trailed, winning by a decisive four-point margin to become the youngest ever world champion until Kasparov.
Moscow 1966
Boris Spassky v Tigran Petrosian (Game 10)
Spassky, the rising star of Soviet chess, had gone off as a slight favorite against Petrosian, the Armenian southpaw nicknamed Iron Tigran whose unmatched defensive prowess carried him to the championship three years earlier. But Petrosian tightened his grip on the match in their 10th game, neutralizing the 29-year-old challenger’s aggressive attack with precise, prophylactic play. In a stunning reversal, Petrosian turned defense into offense, seizing control and claiming his second win. The game exemplified the 36-year-old’s flair for exploiting small positional edges while maintaining psychological pressure in the hairy moments. He’d go on retain the title but Spassky’s time was not far off; he’d win their rematch three years later.
Reykjavík 1972
Bobby Fischer v Boris Spassky (Game 6)
The peak of Fischer’s genius. Known as the Game of the Century, the 29-year-old American’s profound understanding of positional chess, unparalleled adaptability and impeccable endgame play all came together on the day that proved the turning point of their Cold War proxy battle in the Icelandic capital. Playing with the white pieces, Fischer surprised the champion by deviating from his usual 1 e4 openings and deploying 1 c4 for only the third time in a serious game. His deep strategic planning shined in the middlegame, leaving the champion with no counterplay, before he closed the show with a flawless, elegant endgame. Recognizing the brilliance of the moment, Spassky could only stand and applaud with the audience when he resigned after 41 moves. “This game was notable for two things,” the former British champion C.H.O’D. Alexander observed. “First, Fischer played the Queen’s Gambit for the first time in his life in a serious game; second, he played it to perfection, the game indeed casting doubt on Black’s whole opening system.”
Reykjavík 1972
Bobby Fischer v Boris Spassky (Game 10)
Trailing 5½-3½ in a match he’d once led 2-0, the unbowed Spassky achieved a favorable position from the Ruy Lopez opening and appeared to have the upper hand. But Fischer defended with extraordinary skill and found ingenious counterplay to neutralize the threats, seize the initiative and transition into attack by exploiting Spassky’s inaccuracies (25...Qxa5?!). A classic example of Fischer’s ability to adapt under enormous pressure and capitalize on seemingly equal or even slightly worse positions, the result delivered a critical psychological blow to the champion and reinforced Fischer’s mounting dominance in the match. The lone, self-taught American went on to win 12½-8½ over the Soviet chess machine, the only world championship match won by a player from outside the USSR from 1948 until the country’s dissolution in 1991.
Moscow 1985
Anatoly Karpov v Garry Kasparov (Game 16)
Seven months after their grueling first world title encounter was controversially abandoned after 48 games due to concerns over player health, Kasparov and Karpov reconvened in Moscow for a rematch freighted with ideological undertones amid a shifting political climate in Russia. Kasparov, playing as white, unleashed a dynamic attack in a sharp variation of the Sicilian Defense, showcasing his aggressive and tactical prowess, dismantling Karpov’s position with unsparing pressure. The 22-year-old Kasparov broke a tie in the match for a lead he would not surrender, winning 13-11 to become the youngest undisputed world champion in history (a mark India’s Gukesh Dommaraju can eclipse in 2024). They’d end up facing one another in five world title matches from 1984 to 1990, crystallizing one of the great rivalries across all of sport.
London 2000
Vladimir Kramnik v Garry Kasparov (Game 2)
The Riverside Studios in London’s Hammersmith played host to a landmark contest as the 25-year-old Kramnik, playing as white, uncorked a novelty that helped dismantle Kasparov’s beloved Grünfeld Defence so effectively that he wouldn’t play again in the match. After winning their second game in an opposite-bishop ending, Kramnik went on to prevail 8½-6½ and end Kasparov’s 15-year title reign. The match (then known as the Braingames World Championship) also sparked a surge in popularity for the Berlin Defense, which Kramnik used four times with the black pieces, earning it the nickname ‘Berlin Wall’ and influencing future elite-level chess.
Brissago 2004
Vladimir Kramnik v Peter Leko (Game 14)
Trailing 7-6 in the best-of-14-games match with all margin for error completely spent, Kramnik was able to get an advantage out of the opening with a sharp variation of the Caro-Kann. The Hungarian challenger defended tenaciously but ultimately buckled after Kramnik managed to break into the black position with a positional pawn sacrifice. Facing checkmate in two moves, Leko resigned and Kramnik retained the championship on a 7-7 draw. “I had to give everything, especially at the end, to win against such an opponent,” he said. “Peter Leko is an incredible defender. For me it was more difficult than my match against Kasparov in the year 2000.”
Bonn 2008
Viswanathan Anand v Vladimir Kramnik (Game 5)
Twenty years after becoming India’s first grandmaster, Anand put his deep preparation on full display as he unveiled the Meran Variation of the Semi-Slav Defense, neutralizing his opponent’s threats while building a decisive advantage. The Tiger Of Madras incrementally applied pressure in dynamic battle with unbalanced pawn structures until a Kramnik blunder (29 Nxd4??) handed him a second win as black in the match. The showcase of adaptability and execution opened a 3½–1½ lead for Anand, who went on to defend the undisputed world title he’d won in 2006.
New York 2016
Magnus Carlsen v Sergey Karjakin (Game 10)
Carlsen later admitted to the Guardian he’d believed defeat was “certain” after he’d lost the eighth game with the white pieces. But the Norwegian star leveled the match three days later with a stunning win under immense pressure. Playing as white, Carlsen opted for the Ruy Lopez, carefully building a small advantage in a tense middlegame. As the position transitioned to an endgame, the champion’s relentless technique and deep understanding of nuances allowed him to outmaneuver Karjakin, who finally cracked under the strain. He’d go on to retain the title with an elegant queen sacrifice in the third game a rapid tiebreaker.
Dubai 2021
Magnus Carlsen v Ian Nepomniachtchi (Game 6)
Carlsen fought back from the brink to draw first blood against Nepomniachtchi in a heart-stopping sixth game that spanned eight hours over parts of two days before ending after midnight. The Russian challenger and world No 5 went from having Carlsen on the ropes under clock pressure at the first time control, to coming within five seconds of losing on time himself, to finding himself squeezed toward submission in a positional endgame by an unforgiving foe operating with engine-like precision. When he finally resigned after 136 moves, the playing hall erupted in applause. It marked the longest game in the centuries-spanning history of world championship matchplay, surpassing the 124-move stalemate between Karpov and Viktor Korchnoi in the fifth game of their 1978 tilt.
Astana 2023
Ian Nepomniachtchi v Ding Liren (Game 12)
Needing at least one win in the final three games to force the championship into tiebreakers, Ding masterfully countered Nepomniachtchi’s aggressive setup as white with precise defensive play and sharp tactics. The game moved into a tense and complex middlegame where Ding seized the initiative, gradually outmaneuvering Nepomniachtchi and capitalizing on this opponent’s errors to secure a decisive victory. He’d go on to win the title in a tiebreak playoff, despite having never once led in the three-week match, to become the 17th man to capture the world chess title and the first from China.
