The 2022 World Cup has been mired in controversy since Qatar was announced as its host 12 years ago. Despite numerous corruption allegations, investigations and stark outcries over its troublesome track record on human rights, the small yet incredibly wealthy country has landed a spot on the world stage as the contentious tournament goes ahead.
Grave concerns have been raised over the host nation's stance on same sex relationships - as Qatari law prohibits their very existence. The country faced even further scrutiny when a Qatar World Cup ambassador recently described homosexuality as "damage in the mind" - just days before the tournament kicked off.
While human rights campaign groups have warned of state-sponsored conversion practices, ingrained prejudices and arbitrary arrests of LGBTQ people living in Qatar, women's rights are also severely curtailed by the country's guardianship laws - and this could put female fans travelling to watch the World Cup at risk.
An 2021 investigation by Human Rights Watch found that Qatari laws, practices and regulations limit the freedoms of women in Qatar - denying them the right to make key decisions about their lives. The Qatari government rebukes these claims, but the campaign group insists that little has changed since their report.
The organisation found that men must grant permission for many aspects of a woman's livelihood, including marriage, studying abroad and certain fields of work. It argues that Qatar's record on women's rights is a stain on the shiny exterior that the country is trying to promote.
Women's rights campaigners have also warned that women in Qatar can face persecution for reporting sexual assault, requesting sexual health care or being intimate in public when they aren't married.
As female football fans flock to Qatar to show their support for England, we spoke to experts to map out what women can and can't do in the country, as well as its track record on women's rights.
Dos and don'ts for women visiting Qatar
As concerns grew over the country's track record on human rights ahead of the World Cup, the UK government released guidance on how to adhere to laws and customs in Qatar - which include the strict rules that women have to follow.
Female football fans are expected to dress modestly while in public - including while driving - and "must cover their shoulders and avoid wearing short skirts". Both men and women are warned not to wear sleeveless tops or shorts when out in public.
The government has warned football fans that public shows of affection are banned - including hand holding and kissing. Sexual relationships between unmarried couples is illegal, and can "lead to arrest and a potential court case where the judgement can include a fine, a custodial sentence and deportation once the sentence is complete".
Qatar's strict laws mean also that any woman who becomes pregnant outside marriage could face prison or deportation alongside their partner. The UK government warns that "doctors will ask for proof of marriage during ante-natal checks".
Rothna Begum, a senior women's rights researcher at Human Rights Watch, told the Mirror: "The main risk for women travellers to Qatar has been around laws that criminalize consensual sex outside marriage and restrictions on access to certain forms of sexual and reproductive healthcare to only married women.
"This has previously meant that women who found out they were pregnant or had a miscarriage while unmarried may not be able to access non-urgent treatment or risk being reported to the authorities for consensual sex outside marriage.
Giving birth in the Islamic country can also become complicated, as the UK government's guidance states: "An unmarried woman who gives birth in Qatar may also encounter problems when registering the birth of the child in Qatar, and could be arrested, imprisoned or deported".
"To get a birth certificate from the Qatari authorities, you must provide a marriage certificate and the authorities may compare the date of the marriage against the estimated date of conception".
Sexual violence in Qatar
Research has shown that the risk of sexual violence rises significantly at major sporting events, and while female football fans visiting Qatar may feel confident in their understanding of the country's laws, the way in which they are applied when women become victims of sexual violence goes widely under the radar.
Human rights campaigners have expressed concerns for victims of sexual violence during the World Cup, as there have been previous instances of female victims being prosecuted for extra marital sex when reporting rape in Qatar.
Dr Charlotte Proudman, an award-winning barrister specialising in violence against women, told the Mirror: "Shockingly, everyone has been incredibly silent on Qatar’s horrific sexual assault laws. Qatar's strict Islamic code outlaws all sexual contact between unmarried couples - making it an offence even if the woman has not consented."
The barrister notes that, "In 2016, a 22-year-old Dutch woman, named only as Laura, was convicted of extra-marital sex, fined £580 and given a one-year suspended sentence after reporting a brutal rape".
If a Muslim woman reports being a victim of sexual violence, they may face flogging with a whip or stick due to Qatari marital laws. Other victims have previously faced up to seven years in prison.
Rothna Begum adds: "If there is any indication that a woman knew her assaulter who claims it was consensual, that is enough for the authorities to prosecute and even convict”.
The researcher also explains that survivors of sexual violence could be denied access to sexual and reproductive healthcare - including emergency contraception or antibiotics - without a marriage certificate.
Qatar's Supreme Committee, which heads up the 2022 World Cup operation, has stated that "Qatar protects and promotes the rights of women, and this extends to all women visiting for the World Cup".
Meanwhile, Fifa has said that it is "confident that women will have full access to medical care, including any care connected with a possible pregnancy, regardless of circumstances and without questions asked about marital status."
Rothna believes that Qatar should reconsider its stance on sexual relationships full-stop, as she argues: "The Qatari authorities should repeal laws that criminalise consensual sex outside marriage and ensure that all women can get access to sexual and reproductive healthcare during and beyond the World Cup".
Women's rights in Qatar
The Human Rights Watch's investigation into discrimination against women in Qatar found that the country's laws, regulations, and practices "impose discriminatory male guardianship rules, which deny women the right to make key decisions about their lives".
It states that "women in Qatar must obtain permission from their male guardians (male family members) to marry, study abroad on government scholarships, work in many government jobs, travel abroad until certain ages, and receive certain reproductive health care".
The Qatari government disputed the findings of the report, released in March 2021, and pledged to investigate and prosecute anyone who had breached the law. This investigation has not yet taken place.
While Fifa and Qatar authorities have assured female football fans visiting the country that they will receive the support needed when reporting sexual crimes, human rights campaigners have urged people to consider the reality that many Qatari women face - regardless of the World Cup.
Rothna says: "Qataris themselves have been frustrated by the level of investment the authorities will make and even to carve out freedoms for some people but not ensure that they are allowing their own citizens and residents to enjoy freedoms themselves.
"The World Cup may entitle visitors to be welcome - but the same courtesy of tolerance, respect and non-discrimination should be accorded to women and LGBT people in Qatar."
Charlotte Proudman has urged fans to keep the country’s track record on human rights in mind when cheering on the Three Lions: "Women in Qatar relentlessly face discrimination in law and practice. They cannot speak out due to misogynist laws and societal pressures therefore we must do it for them. Women in Qatar must not be forgotten during this World Cup".
Do you have a story to share? We pay for stories. Email us at ellie.fry@reachplc.com
