For generations, western history was told as a story of progress. Humanity marched steadily from superstition to reason, from monarchy to democracy, from poverty to prosperity. Whether expressed through Enlightenment optimism, Hegel's philosophy, Marx's historical materialism, or 20th century modernisation theory, history was imagined as moving in one direction. The destination differed, but the assumption remained the same: tomorrow would inevitably be better than yesterday.
That confidence has weakened. Financial crises, endless wars, political polarisation, demographic decline, climate anxiety and the rise of new global powers have made many wonder whether civilisations can also decline.
